1. To what extent was Mussolini the all powerful dictator of Italy 1922-1939?
2. Were Mussolini's economic policies successful?

1. To what extent was Mussolini the all powerful dictator of Italy 1922-1939?
2. Were Mussolini's economic policies successful?

• Examine the role of religion in one single-party state
• Examine the status of women in one single-party state
• In what ways, and with what results, was propaganda used by one ruler of a single-party state?
• Identify the aims of youth policies in one single-party state, and evaluate the extent to which they were achieved.

• Examine the role of religion in one single-party state
• Examine the status of women in one single-party state
• In what ways, and with what results, was propaganda used by one ruler of a single-party state?
• Identify the aims of youth policies in one single-party state, and evaluate the extent to which they were achieved.

• "Youth" - Identify the aims of youth policies in one single-party state, and evaluate the extent to which they were achieved (Bryndis)
• "Propaganda" - In what ways, and with what results, was propaganda used by one ruler of a single-party state? (Sulina)
• "Women" - Examine the status of women in one single-party state (Camilla)
• "Religion" - Examine the role of religion in one single-party state (George)

• "Religion" - Examine the role of religion in one single-party state (George)

1. In what ways, and to what extent, did foreign aid to both the Nationalists and the Republicans between 1936 and 1939 contribute to the outcome of the Spanish Civil War?
2. What were the results of the Spanish Civil War for Spain and for Europe?
3. Analyze the reasons for the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War.
4. Analyse the causes and results of the Spanish Civil War.
5. Compare and contrast the impact of the Spanish Civil War on Spain and on one other European state between 1936 and 1939.

1. Analyze the reasons for the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War.
2. Analyse the causes and results of the Spanish Civil War.

1. General poverty and industrial backwardness; There were huge differences between poor and rich - In 1900, 69% of the population were peasants. 65% of the population owned about 6.3% of the land, while 4% held 60%! Spain lacked industries - landless workers could not find any job in the cities. Spain was poor in raw materials, lacked a good communications network and lacked money for development... and in the end the affects of the Wall Street Crash and the World Depression...
2. Weak monarchy - Alfonso XIII had experienced a military disaster in 1921 (Morocco) which nearly overthrew the monarchy. A coup 1923 (by Primo de Rivera) saved the king from a public inquiry. In 1930 he left the country and in 1931 he was told to not return. Spain became a Republic! The dominant groups in Spain were the Army, Church and the Nobility! Spain was very conservative - The Nobility was nearly feudal… the catholic Church supported the Spanish conservatism and so did the Army! The earlier governments had failed to reform the country.
3. General decline and political instability - Spain had lost is position as a great imperial power (several wars; lost it’s South American colonies during the 19th century, war against Napoleon 1808-1813, against the Carlists 1833/34-1839, and 1875-1876, against the United States in 1898 - the Spanish-American War (Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines) and against nationalists in Morocco 1921-1926)… At the same period (between 1808-1936) there were 109 governments. Between 1814 and 1923 there had been 43 military ”interventions”. A radical Spanish labor movement made the political instability even worse - Anarchism influenced by the French syndicalism (CNT - Confederatión Nacional de Trabajo) and the socialists (UGT - Unión General de Trabajadores) were influential. These unions especially attracted the landless laborers in Catalonia and Basque, the only real industrial areas of Spain.
4. Regionalism - especially in the Basque region and in Catalonia.
5. The establishment of the Second Republic 1931 - several reforms suggested the loss of wealth and privilege for the wealthy, the church and the army. Example: Agrarian Law 1932 allowed the distribution of all unworked estates over 56 acres to the peasantry; The church and the State was separated, the Jesuit order was expelled (and it’s assets expropriated), divorce was legalized etc.…; In the Army 40% of the officer corps was retired, republican officers were appointed and soldiers were now liable to civil law (not as before - only military law!). The progressive alliance of Republicans and Socialists were in power 1931 until 1933 when they were replaced by a more conservative government. CEDA (Confederatión Espanola de Derechas Autonomas). CEDA had been established as a reaction to the Republican policies - this was the united right. The governments between 1933 and February 1936 tried to slow down and erode the advances that been made the previous years. Though in February 1936 a new coalition of the left-wing parties won the elections…
6. The political situation in 1936; This includes the victory of the left-wing parties February 1936 - The Popular Front (dominated by the Socialist Party) had won a majority in the Cortes. It was a close election 34.3% for the Popular Front and 33.2% for the Right. These numbers encouraged the army leaders to act. The government seemed to be unable to preserve order when riots and violence broke out during the spring and summer of 1936. It also includes the spread of disorder and instability - 251 churches were burnt, 324 newspaper offices, political clubs and priests houses were attacked (79 being totally destroyed), 339 people murdered and 331 strikes occurred. In the south landless peasants seized land…and in the end the murder of Calvo Sotelo in July 1936. Sotelo was a right-wing politician (the head of CEDA). Sotelos assassination was actually a reprisal from the left-wing for two of their men. Though Solelos death had more impact. It could be compared to the assassination in 1914 in Sarajevo...

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3IQAE2WHIRw&feature=PlayList&p=87949CAB2CD90318&index=2

1. General poverty and industrial backwardness; There were huge differences between poor and rich - In 1900, 69% of the population were peasants. 65% of the population owned about 6.3% of the land, while 4% held 60%! Spain lacked industries - landless workers could not find any job in the cities. Spain was poor in raw materials, lacked a good communications network and lacked money for development... and in the end the affects of the Wall Street Crash and the World Depression...
2. Weak monarchy - Alfonso XIII had experienced a military disaster in 1921 (Morocco) which nearly overthrew the monarchy. A coup 1923 (by Primo de Rivera) saved the king from a public inquiry. In 1930 he left the country and in 1931 he was told to not return. Spain became a Republic! The dominant groups in Spain were the Army, Church and the Nobility! Spain was very conservative - The Nobility was nearly feudal… the catholic Church supported the Spanish conservatism and so did the Army! The earlier governments had failed to reform the country.
3. General decline and political instability - Spain had lost is position as a great imperial power (several wars; lost it’s South American colonies during the 19th century, war against Napoleon 1808-1813, against the Carlists 1833/34-1839, and 1875-1876, against the United States in 1898 - the Spanish-American War (Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines) and against nationalists in Morocco 1921-1926)… At the same period (between 1808-1936) there were 109 governments. Between 1814 and 1923 there had been 43 military ”interventions”. A radical Spanish labor movement made the political instability even worse - Anarchism influenced by the French syndicalism (CNT - Confederatión Nacional de Trabajo) and the socialists (UGT - Unión General de Trabajadores) were influential. These unions especially attracted the landless laborers in Catalonia and Basque, the only real industrial areas of Spain.
4. Regionalism - especially in the Basque region and in Catalonia.
5. The establishment of the Second Republic 1931 - several reforms suggested the loss of wealth and privilege for the wealthy, the church and the army. Example: Agrarian Law 1932 allowed the distribution of all unworked estates over 56 acres to the peasantry; The church and the State was separated, the Jesuit order was expelled (and it’s assets expropriated), divorce was legalized etc.…; In the Army 40% of the officer corps was retired, republican officers were appointed and soldiers were now liable to civil law (not as before - only military law!). The progressive alliance of Republicans and Socialists were in power 1931 until 1933 when they were replaced by a more conservative government. CEDA (Confederatión Espanola de Derechas Autonomas). CEDA had been established as a reaction to the Republican policies - this was the united right. The governments between 1933 and February 1936 tried to slow down and erode the advances that been made the previous years. Though in February 1936 a new coalition of the left-wing parties won the elections…
6. The political situation in 1936; This includes the victory of the left-wing parties February 1936 - The Popular Front (dominated by the Socialist Party) had won a majority in the Cortes. It was a close election 34.3% for the Popular Front and 33.2% for the Right. These numbers encouraged the army leaders to act. The government seemed to be unable to preserve order when riots and violence broke out during the spring and summer of 1936. It also includes the spread of disorder and instability - 251 churches were burnt, 324 newspaper offices, political clubs and priests houses were attacked (79 being totally destroyed), 339 people murdered and 331 strikes occurred. In the south landless peasants seized land…and in the end the murder of Calvo Sotelo in July 1936. Sotelo was a right-wing politician (the head of CEDA). Sotelos assassination was actually a reprisal from the left-wing for two of their men. Though Solelos death had more impact. It could be compared to the assassination in 1914 in Sarajevo...

IB3BD Tuesday 1/12: At the start of this lesson I wrote the following things on the whiteboard:

• Battle of Badajos
• Battle of Majorca
• Battle of Cape Espartel
• Siege of Madrid
• Battle of Málaga
• Battle of Jarama
• Battle of Guadaljara
• Bombing of Guernica
• Battle of Brunete
• Battle of Santander
• Battle of Belchite
• Battle of El Masuco
• Battle of Teruel
• Battle of Cape Palos
• Battle of the Ebro

• Battle of Badajos
• Battle of Majorca
• Battle of Cape Espartel
• Siege of Madrid
• Battle of Málaga
• Battle of Jarama
• Battle of Guadaljara
• Bombing of Guernica
• Battle of Brunete
• Battle of Santander
• Battle of Belchite
• Battle of El Masuco
• Battle of Teruel
• Battle of Cape Palos
• Battle of the Ebro

• Battle of Badajos
• Battle of Majorca
• Battle of Cape Espartel
• Siege of Madrid
• Battle of Málaga
• Battle of Jarama
• Battle of Guadaljara
• Bombing of Guernica
• Battle of Brunete
• Battle of Santander
• Battle of Belchite
• Battle of El Masuco
• Battle of Teruel

• Battle of Cape Palos
• Battle of the Ebro

• Battle of Badajos
• Battle of Majorca
• Battle of Cape Espartel
• Siege of Madrid
• Battle of Málaga
• Battle of Jarama
• Battle of Guadaljara
• Bombing of Guernica
• Battle of Brunete
• Battle of Santander
• Battle of Belchite
• Battle of El Masuco
• Battle of Teruel
• Battle of Cape Palos
• Battle of the Ebro

• Battle of Cape Palos
• Battle of the Ebro

• Battle of Badajos
• Battle of Majorca
• Battle of Cape Espartel
• Siege of Madrid
• Battle of Málaga
• Battle of Jarama
• Battle of Guadaljara
• Bombing of Guernica
• Battle of Brunete
• Battle of Santander
• Battle of Belchite
• Battle of El Masuco
• Battle of Teruel
• Battle of Cape Palos
• Battle of the Ebro

Reasons for the Nationalist victory

1. Nationalists received greater foreign assistance

a. German and Italian help was crucial - especially important was the prompt German and Italian airlift in 1936. Hitler provided the Condor Legion of 6000 men and 100 planes; Mussolini provided 50.000 troops, as well as 760 aircraft and 950 tanks; President Salazar of Portugal provided 20.000 troops and the use of Portuguese roads...
b. The British and French governments a policy of non-­ intervention - the Nyon Conference in 1937 resulted in threats against the German and Italian interference, but it came to late...
c. British, French and US businessmen supported the Nationalists, as did conservatives in general - They were bitter on the cuts on business made by the Popular Front. Franco guaranteed the continuation of private enterprises in Spain. Especially important for the Nationalists were the continuation of oil deliveries; 1/4 came from Texaco and 1/4 came from Shell...
d. Limited support from Soviet was not enough for the Republicans - the supply line from Soviet was long; Stalin did not want to push the Western democracies into Fascist hands by encouraging fear of communism; Stalin demanded prompt payment in gold; after the Munich Conference 1938 (September) Soviet stopped their aid...
e. International Brigades of volunteers helped both sides - 100.000 fought for the Nationalists (mostly Italians, Portuguese and Germans...) and about 40.000 fought for the Republicans (about 3000 came from the US and about 5000 from the USSR).
f. Pope Pius supported Franco - Franco was a "bastion against Godless socialism"

2. The Nationalist forces were superior in all ways

a. Franco was very capable - Franco was able to unite the opposition. He was also a very skillful military...
b. The Republicans were very disunited - divided especially between Anarchists, Socialists, Marxists, Stalinists, Communists, Trotskyists, Republicans and Liberals. On the Republican side there was a virtual civil war within the Civil War...
c. The Nationalists numbered about 600.000 men against 450.000 Republicans - Only 500 out of 15.000 officers were Republicans...

1. General Franco came into power - General Franco and his conservative party came into power 1939. They would remain in power until Franco´s death 1975
2. There was great death and destruction - 70.000 died at the Nationalist side and about 100.000 died on the Republican side. After the war was over a "White terror" set in which killed between 40.000-200.000. About 200.000 civilians were also killed (often put at 1 million)...
3. Many Republicans had to spend years in concentration camps -
4. Between 10 and 15% of the nation's wealth was destroyed - 1/3 of the Spanish merchant marine was put out of action...
5. Reconstruction was difficult - when Spain tried to get loans (credits) it was refused by Britain , France and Germany!
6. Second World War eased the situation - France and Britain made trade arrangements with Spain...
7. There was a legacy of great bitterness - this often split families
8. It meant end of reforms and progress - the wealthy and the Church got their privileges restored...

1. Reduced confidence in Communism – both in Spain and in Europe. USSR gave support to the Republican side (limited support) - this side was defeated!
2. The war helped to bring the end of the League of Nations – League of Nations once again proved itself ineffective. The Nyon Conference was an initiative made by Britain and France not the League of Nations.
3. Many military lessons, especially for Germany – The Germans got to test bullet-resistant fuel tanks, they learnt valuable lessons about the techniques of Blitzkrieg, they realized the need of radio contact between tanks and they got to exercise air strikes. These lessons contributed greatly to German success in 1939-1940.
4. Soviet-German relations deteriorated – at least for a while. However, the Civil War was also one reason for the Soviet-German pacts of 1939!
5. It discouraged Stalin from making an alliance with the West - If France would not try to prevent Fascist encirclement, then Stalin could expect no or little help against Hitler. The West had shown itself weak!
6. It made it easier for Hitler and Germany to expand into Austria and Czechoslovakia (and it generally encouraged Hitler) - It preoccupied Britain, France and Italy. The Anglo-French inaction convinced Hitler that Britain and France would not act against him. The British non-intervention policy in Spain was intended to preserve peace. It had the opposite effect as it encouraged Hitler's expansion in Europe...
7. It prevented an alliance of Britain + France with Mussolini - The Italian involvement in Spain cemented the ties between Germany and Italy (before 1935 they had several serious arguments). This strengthened Hitler's position.
8. It encouraged the Anglo-French policy of appeasement - the bombing of towns and the general suffering of civilians reinforced the view that war was impossible because the bomber would always get through. This was one of Chamberlain's arguments for appeasement policy. The clashes between German forces and Soviet also gave some credence to Hitler's claim to be defending the world against communism...
9. The Spanish Civil War contributed to bringing about the Second World War - most historians argue that the Spanish Civil War was the prelude to the Second World War. Though A.J.P. Taylor, a famous revisionist, has a different opinion (in his classic book - The Origins of the Second World War) - he argues that the Spanish Civil War was "without significant effect in causing the Second World War". He also criticizes the Anglo-French appeasement policy "British and French policy, or lack of it, not the policy of Hitler and Mussolini, decided the outcome of the Spanish civil war. The republic had greater recourses, greater popular backing. It could win if it received the correct treatment to which it was entitled by international law: foreign arms for the legitimate government, none for the rebels. It could even win if both sides received foreign aid, or if both were denied it".
10. The fighting produced a literary and artistic outburst – Ernest Hemingway, Arthur Koestler, George Orwell, Pablo Picasso...

• Battle of Badajos
• Battle of Majorca
• Battle of Cape Espartel
• Siege of Madrid
• Battle of Málaga
• Battle of Jarama
• Battle of Guadaljara
• Bombing of Guernica
• Battle of Brunete
• Battle of Santander
• Battle of Belchite
• Battle of El Masuco
• Battle of Teruel
• Battle of Cape Palos
• Battle of the Ebro

• Political Causes – long-term: Weak monarchy, ruling aristocracy + military, strong Catholic Church who dominated education
• Political Causes – short-term: 1931-1936: 1931 – Republic and liberal leftist government (coalition) – many reform attempts / 1933 – Rightist government (coalition) – tried to undo all the radical reforms and delay other ones / 1936 – Popular Front (leftist coalition) – many new reforms – tension…
• Social Causes – huge differences between different classes. Few land-owning very rich Aristocrats and many very poor peasants (1900: 4% - 69%)
• Economic Causes – Poor agriculture economy (backward) – small poorly developed industry (mostly in Catalonia and Basque). Unequal distribution of wealth.
• Regionalism – Catalonia and Basque wanted independency (at least self-rule). This is where you find the industries, the more radical parties and less repression.
• Religious Causes – The Catholic Church was very dominant and they completely cooperated with the Aristocracy (and the militaries). They feared the new leftist movements (especially socialism) and felt their existence threatened – that’s why the Spanish Church full heartedly supported the nationalists…

1. Franco and the Nationalists won because of their greater unity and superior supplies
2. The Church was an especially powerful ally to the Nationalists
3. The Republicans' supporters were divided into a number of disparate groups (Anarchists, Communists, Socialists, Republicans, etc...)
4. Franco's forces received more aid from Germany and Italy (men, military equipment, food and raw materials) than the Republicans got from either Russia or international groups
5. Powerful private companies like the American Texas Oil Company also supported the Nationalists
6. Franco and his colleagues + officers were far more experienced in matters of tactics and supply than the "People's Army"

• The Conservative government of Great Britain - they did not support the leftist government in Spain and therefore put pressure on France to do the same. At the same time they did not support the Nationalists either - they instead came up with the idea of "non-intervention"!
• The policy of non-intervention played a crucial role since it actively hindered the participating countries from sending equipment and men to Republican Spain (27 nations were represented on the Non-Intervention Committee in London)
• Even though both Italy and Germany also sat at the Non-Intervention Committee they gave aid to Franco and the Nationalists - first in secret - later in the open.
• Hitler wanted raw material (like minerals) and Göring wanted to test his military forces (a special squadron known as the "Condor Legion" was formed and sent to Spain - they were very important for the Nationalists)
• Italy sent a big amount of "volunteers" (between 50 000 - 75 000 men) as well as material. Mussolini did not get any real advantage of the war except some Italian victories to satisfy him and the glory of Italy
• At a conference in Nyon (September 1937) the Western Mediterranean was divided into separate patrol zones that were supervised by the "non-intervention" countries (including Italy). This hit the Republican side hard since both Germany and Italy continued to support the Nationalists
• Great Britain did not want to confront Mussolini and Italy too much since they still hoped that they could keep him away from Hitler and Germany (appeasement)
• Russia did not want to ruin their image too much so they never sent an extensive amount of material, very few men and they pulled out of the war before it was over
• May Days in Barcelona were a period of civil violence in Catalonia, between May 3 and May 8, 1937, when factions on the Republican side of the Spanish Civil War engaged each other in street battles in the city of Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain). It was the result of the deeper division between Anarchists and Communists which had persisted for decades - a civil war within the Civil War!!!

1. Analyze the strength and weakness of the opposing sides in the Spanish Civil War.
2. Analyze the causes and results of the Spanish Civil War.
3. Why did a Civil War break out in Spain in 1936?
4. To what extent did the foreign aid contribute to the Nationalist victory?
5. Explain why Franco's forces won the Spanish Civil War, and why the Republican forces lost.

1. Analyze the strength and weakness of the opposing sides in the Spanish Civil War.
2. Analyze the causes and results of the Spanish Civil War.
3. Why did a Civil War break out in Spain in 1936?
4. To what extent did the foreign aid contribute to the Nationalist victory?
5. Explain why Franco's forces won the Spanish Civil War, and why the Republican forces lost.

• The Tsar made all final decisions to Russia’s government, army, economy and foreign relations. The other bodies of government were just administrative or advisory
• The three bodies of administration and advice’s were;
• The Imperial Council (or His Imperial Majesty’s Private Chancery. The Third Section of this Chancery was in charge of state security, standing at the centre of a complex web of censorship and surveillance)
• The Committee of Ministers (8 )
• The Senate

The Tsar was criticized from both sides - the conservatives resented the loss of influence and privilege and the liberals became frustrated at the Tsar´s refusal to take his reforms to their logical conclusion. More radical and revolutionary forms of opposition developed as Alexander’s reign progressed. In some ways the reforms created this ”hot” political atmosphere.

The most important names on the Russian left in the 1850s and the 1860s were those of Alexander Herzen (exiled in 1848. Published a journal ”The Bell” (Kolokol) from London ), Nikolai Chernyshevsky (part of then literary radicalism of the 1850s. He claimed that reforms were impossible without a fundamental alteration of Russia ’s political and economical bases. His novel ”What is to be Done?” inspired the next generation) and D. I. Pisarev (he advised his followers to not ”accept any single principle on trust, however much respect surrounds that principle”. This principle to accept nothing of the existing society without question was named ”nihilism” (nihil (lat.) - nothing)).

Terrorism was the more attractive alternative for those with less patience. The first attempt on the life of the Tsar was in 1866 when a student shot at him in the streets of St. Petersburg . In 1879 a split in the ranks of ”Land and Liberty” gave birth to a group called ”The Peoples Will” (Narodnaya Volya) that advocated violence as the trigger to general revolution. Although other government officials were among their early victims, their chief target was always the Tsar himself. Attempts to shoot him, dynamite the royal train and explosives in the Winter Palace came within a year 1879-80. In March 1881 they succeeded!

• The Tsar made all final decisions to Russia’s government, army, economy and foreign relations. The other bodies of government were just administrative or advisory
• The three bodies of administration and advice’s were;
• The Imperial Council (or His Imperial Majesty’s Private Chancery. The Third Section of this Chancery was in charge of state security, standing at the centre of a complex web of censorship and surveillance)
• The Committee of Ministers (8 )
• The Senate

ALEXANDER II

The Tsar was criticized from both sides - the conservatives resented the loss of influence and privilege and the liberals became frustrated at the Tsar´s refusal to take his reforms to their logical conclusion. More radical and revolutionary forms of opposition developed as Alexander’s reign progressed. In some ways the reforms created this ”hot” political atmosphere.

The most important names on the Russian left in the 1850s and the 1860s were those of Alexander Herzen (exiled in 1848. Published a journal ”The Bell” (Kolokol) from London ), Nikolai Chernyshevsky (part of then literary radicalism of the 1850s. He claimed that reforms were impossible without a fundamental alteration of Russia ’s political and economical bases. His novel ”What is to be Done?” inspired the next generation) and D. I. Pisarev (he advised his followers to not ”accept any single principle on trust, however much respect surrounds that principle”. This principle to accept nothing of the existing society without question was named ”nihilism” (nihil (lat.) - nothing)).

Terrorism was the more attractive alternative for those with less patience. The first attempt on the life of the Tsar was in 1866 when a student shot at him in the streets of St. Petersburg . In 1879 a split in the ranks of ”Land and Liberty” gave birth to a group called ”The Peoples Will” (Narodnaya Volya) that advocated violence as the trigger to general revolution. Although other government officials were among their early victims, their chief target was always the Tsar himself. Attempts to shoot him, dynamite the royal train and explosives in the Winter Palace came within a year 1879-80. In March 1881 they succeeded!

IB3BD Monday 8/3: We went through "Mock Exam" - Paper 3. The results from some students were good. After looking at the scores we looked at the questions and had some guesses what this paper might be like in May... but remember that part is just speculations. The best thing you can do is to always read the Syllabus. There you have exact information about what's coming up in May. Here is a link to Paper 3 (and Paper 1 and 2) in the Syllabus;
PAPER 3

Alexander II:s last year - a liberal attempt? Alexander had during the latter part of his reign showed that he remained committed to an autocratic system, though there was maybe an attempt to go back to a more liberal system during his last years… When Alexander’s first wife died in 1880, he married the much younger Princess Dolgoruky. She was the friend and patron of a number of liberal politicians. It was under this period a liberal politician; Mikhail Loris-Melikov was appointed minister of the interior. He managed to abolish the Third Section (as described before, the Third Section was a part of the Imperial Council or His Imperial Majesty’s Private Chancery, and this section was in charge of state security). Loris-Melikov also managed to replace one of the most reactionary ministers - Dmitri Tolstoy (Ministry of Education). Right before Alexander II was killed he had just given his personal approval for calling in a national assembly, partly of nominated members, but also elected representatives of the zemstvos and the town councils. The Soviet historian P. A. Zaionchkovsky concedes that ”in the conditions of an increasingly complex situation it might have been the beginning of the establishment of a parliamentary system in Russia”. This came to a stop when Alexander was killed by the second of two bombs thrown at his sledge in a St Petersburg street.

• It was the end of the ”Congress System” that had existed since Vienna 1815. No major war had occurred between 1815-1854
• It weakened the two traditional guarantors of the status quo in Europe; Austria and Russia. Britain, although a victor in the Crimean War, eventually lost her continental role after the poor handling of the Italian unification, the Polish uprise (1863) and the Schleswig-Holstein dispute 1864
• It cut the link between Austria and Russia
• The balance of power in Central Europe was destroyed
• The change of balance gave a unique opportunity to a new generation of statesmen with revisionist aims; Napoleon III (France), Cavour (Piedmont-Sardinia) and Bismarck (Prussia)
• Two countries were unified; Italy (1861) and Germany (1871). The formation of Germany definitely ruined the balance of power in Central Europe
• Short wars with specific objectives became favorable
• The eastern question became a constant irritant inflaming relation between Austria-Hungary and Russia

• True believer in Autocracy
• Against Democracy
• Orthodox (Procurator of the Holy Synod = lay supervisor of the Orthodox Church)
• Against all other religions and sects
• Anti-Semite: “One third of the Jews should be killed, one third should be forced to emigrate and one third should be assimilated”
• Russian! Against all minorities of Russia …

• Land Commandants – a new office introduced by Alexander III in 1889
• Land Commandants had to belong to the nobility
• Land Commandants sat in the local administration (Zemstvo/Dumas) and had senior administrative and judicial power – over-riding the authority of the local administration
• Land Commandants replaced the Office of Justice of the Peace in local courts

• Restricted the popular vote to the Zemstvo/Dumas
• A list of candidates to the local administration replaced the previous ability to freely vote for Zemstvo/Duma deputies
• The suggestions and proposals from the local administrations were often obstructed and undermined

• The influence of the local clergy (Orthodox Church) in elementary schools expanded a lot during the reign of Alexander III – In 1897 over 79% of the population was illiterate
• 1884 – Law that limited the administrative autonomy of Higher Education
• 1887 – Tuition fees were raised

• 1899 – The Finnish Diet was deprived of nearly all their legislative rights – protests…
• 1903 – The Russian Governor-General Nikolai Bobrikov was given dictatorial power so he could crush the opposition
• 1904 – Bobrikov was assassinated – this could have lead to repression but…
• 1904-05 – Russo-Japanese War / Bloody Sunday / 1905 Revolt / Manifestos…
• 1905 – Finland temporarily got the old constitution back

• Ghettos for Jews were created in urban areas
• 1881-1905 – over 215 cases of “pogroms” (= persecution of Jews)
• Jews were forbidden to make any new settlements in rural areas
• Jews were not allowed to trade on Christian holidays
• Special quotas for Jews in schools and higher education
• Kiev 1886 – all “illegal” Jews were expelled from the city
• Moscow 1891 – all “illegal” Jews were expelled from the city

• The liberal Minister of Interior Loris-Melikov was replaced by Nikolai Ignatiev who later was replaced by Dmitry Tolstoy…
• Lenin’s brother Alexander was executed in 1886 accused of plotting to kill the Tsar
• Supervision of Universities and Courts
• Censorship and supervision of the Press

• Development of railroads – linked major areas of industrial development to important markets + linked the areas of agricultural production with the ports of the Black Sea
• 1883 – the Batum–Baku railroad. Linked the Caspian Sea with the Black Sea. This increased the Russian oil production a lot!
• 1891 – Start of the construction of the Trans-Siberian railroad

• In the 1870’s low tariffs
• Late 1870’s – tariffs began to rise
• 1891 – the “Great Protective Tariffs”. These tariffs especially protected the Russian coal and pig iron production

• More protective tariffs
• Foreign investments and foreign capital in Russian industries
• Russian currency put on the Gold Standard

Foreign policy of Tsar Alexander II.

Crimean War – Treaty of Paris 1856. Russia lost the war against an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, Great Britain, France and Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia). The Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) had supported the alliance but they never participated actively in the war. The Alliance now wanted to give certain protection to the Ottoman Empire against Russian aggression:

• Moldavia and Wallachia would remain under the Ottoman Empire (but they would be granted independent constitutions and national assemblies). Moldavia would also receive southern Bessarabia (Budjak) from Russia .
• A referendum would be held at a later date in Moldavia and Wallachia to decide an eventual unification (future Rumania …)
• Russia lost some territories at the mouth of the Danube
• Åland Islands should remain demilitarized (these islands belonged to Finland – the Russian “Grand Duchy of Finland” – and Russia had built a fortress (Bomarsund) which was destroyed by British and French forces in 1854)
• Russia had to abandon its claims to protect the Christians of the Ottoman Empire in favor of France
• The Black Sea should become “neutral territory”. This closed the Black Sea to all warships, prohibited all fortifications and any presence of armaments on its shores (the “Black Sea clauses”)

REACTION:

• Russian economy was bad – and so was the political climate. To ease the economy and calm the population of Russia Alexander II decided to reform – he started with the Emancipation of the Serfs (1861)
• Russia changed the foreign policy – new focus on Asia
• Previous friendship and understanding between Russia and the Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) was now gone. This isolated both nations…
• Russia tried to break its isolation (and break the alliance) by befriending France

Russia-France 1856-1863. Russia wanted to break its isolation and therefore turned to France. This is the reason why Russia;

• accepted the formation of a semi-independent Rumania 1858 (Paris Conference) even though Russia still had a big interest in the Balkans
• accepted Napoleon III’s plan of war against the Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) 1859. This Alexander II did without hesitation since it broke the previous alliance and the Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) now got “punished” for deserting Russia 1855

…but when France supported the Poles 1863 (Polish Revolt) Russia broke their attempts to befriend France!

Polish Revolt 1863. In 1861 a demonstration in Warsaw for greater Polish independence against the previous Russification ended in the Russian military open fire. Over 200 demonstrators were killed… Nicholas I’s brother Konstantin was given the authority as viceroy – he was nearly assassinated after only one month in office. When a rumor of the conscription of Poles to the Russian Army spread a revolt broke out in January 1863. It took the Russian militaries nearly a year to crush it.

RESULT: Russification…

• Property of the Polish Roman Catholic Church was seized
• University of Warsaw was closed
• Russian language now became the official administrative language
• More Russians and less Poles were put into the Polish administration
• Isolation again!!! France had openly supported the independence of Poland. Great Britain and the Habsburg Empire also supported the Poles – but not openly.

Russia-Prussia 1863-1878. During this period Russia was befriended by Prussia/Germany with its new Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. This is the reason why Russia;

• stayed neutral during the Seven Weeks War (Prusso-Austrian War) 1866
• stayed neutral during the Franco-Prussian War 1870-71 (Russia renounced the Black Sea clauses 1870 – in November. At the Great Power Conference in London 1871 both Russia and the Ottoman Empire were given the formal permission to station naval forces on the Black Sea)
• Germany was now a strong power in the centre of Europe. Bismarck’s diplomacy paid off!
• 1873 – Dreikaiserbund (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia) It consisted of a series of bi--lateral military agreements promising aid to any party attacked by a fourth power. Behind the facade Russia resented the rising German power and at Austrian pretensions in the Balkans.

Asia – continued expansion. Nicholas I had incorporated new areas in the south and east of the Russian Empire. Alexander II continued this policy by:

• Renewed campaigns in Caucasus 1857. Brought to a successful conclusion in 1864 when the population negative to Russian expansion had been killed or forced over the borders…
• Russian troops continued with successful campaigns towards Persia and Afghanistan
• In Central Asia three Khanates (Khiva, Khokand and Bukhara) were incorporated
• China was persuaded to cede territory north of the Amur River and some area north of Korea – Russia founded a naval base there – they named it Vladivostok
• Russia established trading rights with Japan and started to negotiate the acquisition of the island of Sakhalin

Alaska sold. Close relations existed between the USA and Russia. The few Russians living in Alaska had seen a declining number of otters, the main animal in the fur trade, so the business was not good anymore. Alaska was also at the very edge of the Empire making it hard to control and Russia desperately needed money. That’s why Russia sold Alaska 1867 to the USA for $7 million. The US Congress nearly refused the deal since they thought the price was far too high…

Balkans – the Eastern Question. Russia never lost interest in the Balkan area. They were forced to be diplomatic and careful in their Balkan policy. Pan-Slavism was strong in Russia so the popular demand of expansion into the Balkans was always there. During the first 20 years of his reign Alexander II managed to control the popular demand. In 1875 a major crisis in the area, especially in Bosnia, Herzegovina and later in Bulgaria escalated into open revolts and demands of independence. The Ottoman Empire tried to brutally crush these revolts. In May 1876 Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed on a solution (Berlin Memorandum) but the action in support of the rebels fell because Great Britain opposed it. In June 1876 Serbia and Montenegro declared war against the Ottoman Empire. Thousands of Russian volunteers joined the Serbian Army. The war went bad and Alexander II now had to take a decision of Russian active involvement or not…

The Russo-Turkish War 1877-1878: Russia made an agreement with Austria (Reichstadt July 1876) whereby Russia would regain southern Bessarabia, lost in 1856, and Austria would receive part of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the event of a successful Russian clash with Turkey. The war started in April 1877. Both Turkey and Russia suffered from military incompetence - L. Kochan describes it as ”a war between the one-eyed and the blind - so many errors of strategy and judgment were committed”. Nevertheless, Russia was the less incompetent and won this war.

• Treaty of Stefano (3 March 1878). Russia enjoyed considerable gains. Russia gained territory in Caucasus and regained the southern part of Bessarabia. Ignoring the agreement of Reichstadt Russia helped the creation of Rumania, Serbia, Montenegro and a large Bulgarian state (all open for Russian influence). The diplomatic protests and hostilities forced Russia to a revision of the treaty. Both Austria-Hungary and Great Britain made it clear that it had to be revised. Alexander II and Russia accepted for three main reasons:

• The war had strained the weak Russian economy
• Russia had problems defeating the Ottoman Empire. She would not be able to stand up against an alliance of the Great Powers of Europe
• The pressure from domestic problems and threats of revolt was big

• Congress of Berlin (June-July 1878). Russia and Tsar Alexander II saw the Congress of Berlin as ”a European coalition against Russia under the leadership of Prince Bismarck”. Russia maintained her gains in Asia but the Balkan settlements were rearranged. The Russians felt that they had won the war but lost the diplomatic negotiations. Both the Balkan nationalists and the Russian Pan-Slavists felt a lingering resentment toward Austria-Hungary, Great Britain and Germany for depriving them of the fruits of the Russian military victory. Russia recovered control of the mouth of the Danube, received areas in Asia which were rich of oil and the creation of Bulgaria was a significant gain of influence. If the treaty would have been compared with the situation in 1876 it would have been a good treaty, but it was not. It was instead compared to the treaty of San Stefano…
• The Dreikaiserbund was also undermined by the installation of Austrian administration in Bosnia and Herzegovina against the local population’s will.
• The tension between Germany and Russia escalated even more the next year when Germany introduced protective tariffs against Russian agriculture.
• Dual Alliance 1879. Germany wanted to make sure that they had an ally so they signed a specific alliance with Austria-Hungary . Russia was now a weak link.
• Then in 1881 Alexander was assassinated!

Foreign policy of Tsar Alexander III.

Three Emperor’s League 1881. A weakened version of the Dreikaiserbund was established at the beginning of Alexander III’s reign (June 1881). The dual goals of the league were to prevent intervention by Austria-Hungary or Russia in the event of an outbreak of hostilities between France and Germany and to prevent friction between Austria-Hungary and Russia over territorial claims in the Balkans. The Three Emperor’s League was renewed in 1884 but it was not renewed when it expired in 1887. Instead, Russia moved closer diplomatically to France.

France again - the French ”entente”: In 1887 Alexander III refused to renew the Three Emperor’s League (in 1881 the Drekaiserbund changed name). This threatened Bismarck’s diplomatic policies. He managed to receive a bilateral, completely secret agreement with Russia, known as the Reinsurance Treaty 1887.

The refusal of the new German Kaiser Wilhelm II to renew the treaty in 1890 renewed Russia’s international isolation. An agreement to curtail the activities of Russian nihilists in France was followed by the more important step of opening the French money market to Russian borrowing. Slowly, between 1891 and 1894, the military understanding all important to France began to take shape. Meetings between the respective chiefs of staff resulted in an agreement on joint military action. The Tsar finally consented to regard this as the basis of an official Franco-Russian alliance (January 1894). Russia undertook to attack Germany if that country attacked France, or aided Italy in an attack on France. France was similarly committed if Germany attacked Russia, or aided Austria-Hungary in such an attack. This took Europe a step closer to the outbreak of World War I.

• True believer in Autocracy
• Against Democracy
• Orthodox (Procurator of the Holy Synod = lay supervisor of the Orthodox Church)
• Against all other religions and sects
• Anti-Semite: “One third of the Jews should be killed, one third should be forced to emigrate and one third should be assimilated”
• Russian! Against all minorities of Russia …

• Land Commandants – a new office introduced by Alexander III in 1889
• Land Commandants had to belong to the nobility
• Land Commandants sat in the local administration (Zemstvo/Dumas) and had senior administrative and judicial power – over-riding the authority of the local administration
• Land Commandants replaced the Office of Justice of the Peace in local courts

• Restricted the popular vote to the Zemstvo/Dumas
• A list of candidates to the local administration replaced the previous ability to freely vote for Zemstvo/Duma deputies
• The suggestions and proposals from the local administrations were often obstructed and undermined

• The influence of the local clergy (Orthodox Church) in elementary schools expanded a lot during the reign of Alexander III – In 1897 over 79% of the population was illiterate
• 1884 – Law that limited the administrative autonomy of Higher Education
• 1887 – Tuition fees were raised

• 1899 – The Finnish Diet was deprived of nearly all their legislative rights – protests…
• 1903 – The Russian Governor-General Nikolai Bobrikov was given dictatorial power so he could crush the opposition
• 1904 – Bobrikov was assassinated – this could have lead to repression but…
• 1904-05 – Russo-Japanese War / Bloody Sunday / 1905 Revolt / Manifestos…
• 1905 – Finland temporarily got the old constitution back

• Ghettos for Jews were created in urban areas
• 1881-1905 – over 215 cases of “pogroms” (= persecution of Jews)
• Jews were forbidden to make any new settlements in rural areas
• Jews were not allowed to trade on Christian holidays
• Special quotas for Jews in schools and higher education
• Kiev 1886 – all “illegal” Jews were expelled from the city
• Moscow 1891 – all “illegal” Jews were expelled from the city

• The liberal Minister of Interior Loris-Melikov was replaced by Nikolai Ignatiev who later was replaced by Dmitry Tolstoy…
• Lenin’s brother Alexander was executed in 1886 accused of plotting to kill the Tsar
• Supervision of Universities and Courts
• Censorship and supervision of the Press

• Development of railroads – linked major areas of industrial development to important markets + linked the areas of agricultural production with the ports of the Black Sea
• 1883 – the Batum–Baku railroad. Linked the Caspian Sea with the Black Sea. This increased the Russian oil production a lot!
• 1891 – Start of the construction of the Trans-Siberian railroad

• In the 1870’s low tariffs
• Late 1870’s – tariffs began to rise
• 1891 – the “Great Protective Tariffs”. These tariffs especially protected the Russian coal and pig iron production

• More protective tariffs
• Foreign investments and foreign capital in Russian industries
• Russian currency put on the Gold Standard

Foreign policy of Tsar Alexander II.

Crimean War – Treaty of Paris 1856. Russia lost the war against an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, Great Britain, France and Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia). The Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) had supported the alliance but they never participated actively in the war. The Alliance now wanted to give certain protection to the Ottoman Empire against Russian aggression:

• Moldavia and Wallachia would remain under the Ottoman Empire (but they would be granted independent constitutions and national assemblies). Moldavia would also receive southern Bessarabia (Budjak) from Russia .
• A referendum would be held at a later date in Moldavia and Wallachia to decide an eventual unification (future Rumania …)
• Russia lost some territories at the mouth of the Danube
• Åland Islands should remain demilitarized (these islands belonged to Finland – the Russian “Grand Duchy of Finland” – and Russia had built a fortress (Bomarsund) which was destroyed by British and French forces in 1854)
• Russia had to abandon its claims to protect the Christians of the Ottoman Empire in favor of France
• The Black Sea should become “neutral territory”. This closed the Black Sea to all warships, prohibited all fortifications and any presence of armaments on its shores (the “Black Sea clauses”)

REACTION:

• Russian economy was bad – and so was the political climate. To ease the economy and calm the population of Russia Alexander II decided to reform – he started with the Emancipation of the Serfs (1861)
• Russia changed the foreign policy – new focus on Asia
• Previous friendship and understanding between Russia and the Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) was now gone. This isolated both nations…
• Russia tried to break its isolation (and break the alliance) by befriending France

Russia-France 1856-1863. Russia wanted to break its isolation and therefore turned to France. This is the reason why Russia;

• accepted the formation of a semi-independent Rumania 1858 (Paris Conference) even though Russia still had a big interest in the Balkans
• accepted Napoleon III’s plan of war against the Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) 1859. This Alexander II did without hesitation since it broke the previous alliance and the Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) now got “punished” for deserting Russia 1855

…but when France supported the Poles 1863 (Polish Revolt) Russia broke their attempts to befriend France!

Polish Revolt 1863. In 1861 a demonstration in Warsaw for greater Polish independence against the previous Russification ended in the Russian military open fire. Over 200 demonstrators were killed… Nicholas I’s brother Konstantin was given the authority as viceroy – he was nearly assassinated after only one month in office. When a rumor of the conscription of Poles to the Russian Army spread a revolt broke out in January 1863. It took the Russian militaries nearly a year to crush it.

RESULT: Russification…

• Property of the Polish Roman Catholic Church was seized
• University of Warsaw was closed
• Russian language now became the official administrative language
• More Russians and less Poles were put into the Polish administration
• Isolation again!!! France had openly supported the independence of Poland. Great Britain and the Habsburg Empire also supported the Poles – but not openly.

Russia-Prussia 1863-1878. During this period Russia was befriended by Prussia/Germany with its new Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. This is the reason why Russia;

• stayed neutral during the Seven Weeks War (Prusso-Austrian War) 1866
• stayed neutral during the Franco-Prussian War 1870-71 (Russia renounced the Black Sea clauses 1870 – in November. At the Great Power Conference in London 1871 both Russia and the Ottoman Empire were given the formal permission to station naval forces on the Black Sea)
• Germany was now a strong power in the centre of Europe. Bismarck’s diplomacy paid off!
• 1873 – Dreikaiserbund (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia) It consisted of a series of bi--lateral military agreements promising aid to any party attacked by a fourth power. Behind the facade Russia resented the rising German power and at Austrian pretensions in the Balkans.

Asia – continued expansion. Nicholas I had incorporated new areas in the south and east of the Russian Empire. Alexander II continued this policy by:

• Renewed campaigns in Caucasus 1857. Brought to a successful conclusion in 1864 when the population negative to Russian expansion had been killed or forced over the borders…
• Russian troops continued with successful campaigns towards Persia and Afghanistan
• In Central Asia three Khanates (Khiva, Khokand and Bukhara) were incorporated
• China was persuaded to cede territory north of the Amur River and some area north of Korea – Russia founded a naval base there – they named it Vladivostok
• Russia established trading rights with Japan and started to negotiate the acquisition of the island of Sakhalin

Alaska sold. Close relations existed between the USA and Russia. The few Russians living in Alaska had seen a declining number of otters, the main animal in the fur trade, so the business was not good anymore. Alaska was also at the very edge of the Empire making it hard to control and Russia desperately needed money. That’s why Russia sold Alaska 1867 to the USA for $7 million. The US Congress nearly refused the deal since they thought the price was far too high…

Balkans – the Eastern Question. Russia never lost interest in the Balkan area. They were forced to be diplomatic and careful in their Balkan policy. Pan-Slavism was strong in Russia so the popular demand of expansion into the Balkans was always there. During the first 20 years of his reign Alexander II managed to control the popular demand. In 1875 a major crisis in the area, especially in Bosnia, Herzegovina and later in Bulgaria escalated into open revolts and demands of independence. The Ottoman Empire tried to brutally crush these revolts. In May 1876 Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed on a solution (Berlin Memorandum) but the action in support of the rebels fell because Great Britain opposed it. In June 1876 Serbia and Montenegro declared war against the Ottoman Empire. Thousands of Russian volunteers joined the Serbian Army. The war went bad and Alexander II now had to take a decision of Russian active involvement or not…

The Russo-Turkish War 1877-1878: Russia made an agreement with Austria (Reichstadt July 1876) whereby Russia would regain southern Bessarabia, lost in 1856, and Austria would receive part of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the event of a successful Russian clash with Turkey. The war started in April 1877. Both Turkey and Russia suffered from military incompetence - L. Kochan describes it as ”a war between the one-eyed and the blind - so many errors of strategy and judgment were committed”. Nevertheless, Russia was the less incompetent and won this war.

• Treaty of Stefano (3 March 1878). Russia enjoyed considerable gains. Russia gained territory in Caucasus and regained the southern part of Bessarabia. Ignoring the agreement of Reichstadt Russia helped the creation of Rumania, Serbia, Montenegro and a large Bulgarian state (all open for Russian influence). The diplomatic protests and hostilities forced Russia to a revision of the treaty. Both Austria-Hungary and Great Britain made it clear that it had to be revised. Alexander II and Russia accepted for three main reasons:

• The war had strained the weak Russian economy
• Russia had problems defeating the Ottoman Empire. She would not be able to stand up against an alliance of the Great Powers of Europe
• The pressure from domestic problems and threats of revolt was big

• Congress of Berlin (June-July 1878). Russia and Tsar Alexander II saw the Congress of Berlin as ”a European coalition against Russia under the leadership of Prince Bismarck”. Russia maintained her gains in Asia but the Balkan settlements were rearranged. The Russians felt that they had won the war but lost the diplomatic negotiations. Both the Balkan nationalists and the Russian Pan-Slavists felt a lingering resentment toward Austria-Hungary, Great Britain and Germany for depriving them of the fruits of the Russian military victory. Russia recovered control of the mouth of the Danube, received areas in Asia which were rich of oil and the creation of Bulgaria was a significant gain of influence. If the treaty would have been compared with the situation in 1876 it would have been a good treaty, but it was not. It was instead compared to the treaty of San Stefano…
• The Dreikaiserbund was also undermined by the installation of Austrian administration in Bosnia and Herzegovina against the local population’s will.
• The tension between Germany and Russia escalated even more the next year when Germany introduced protective tariffs against Russian agriculture.
• Dual Alliance 1879. Germany wanted to make sure that they had an ally so they signed a specific alliance with Austria-Hungary . Russia was now a weak link.
• Then in 1881 Alexander was assassinated!

Foreign policy of Tsar Alexander III.

Three Emperor’s League 1881. A weakened version of the Dreikaiserbund was established at the beginning of Alexander III’s reign (June 1881). The dual goals of the league were to prevent intervention by Austria-Hungary or Russia in the event of an outbreak of hostilities between France and Germany and to prevent friction between Austria-Hungary and Russia over territorial claims in the Balkans. The Three Emperor’s League was renewed in 1884 but it was not renewed when it expired in 1887. Instead, Russia moved closer diplomatically to France.

France again - the French ”entente”: In 1887 Alexander III refused to renew the Three Emperor’s League (in 1881 the Drekaiserbund changed name). This threatened Bismarck’s diplomatic policies. He managed to receive a bilateral, completely secret agreement with Russia, known as the Reinsurance Treaty 1887.

The refusal of the new German Kaiser Wilhelm II to renew the treaty in 1890 renewed Russia’s international isolation. An agreement to curtail the activities of Russian nihilists in France was followed by the more important step of opening the French money market to Russian borrowing. Slowly, between 1891 and 1894, the military understanding all important to France began to take shape. Meetings between the respective chiefs of staff resulted in an agreement on joint military action. The Tsar finally consented to regard this as the basis of an official Franco-Russian alliance (January 1894). Russia undertook to attack Germany if that country attacked France, or aided Italy in an attack on France. France was similarly committed if Germany attacked Russia, or aided Austria-Hungary in such an attack. This took Europe a step closer to the outbreak of World War I.